Civil and barbarous

Use in the book

The political account places civil people among the signs of a healthy commonwealth: cultivated land, prosperous cities, learning, peace, concord and religious obedience. Its opposite gathers poverty, barbarism, waste and discontent into the image of a sick public body. Burton attributes decline in Greece, Asia Minor and Egypt to tyrannical government; the cultural verdict forms part of his historical and anti-Turkish argument. His later consolation uses the reversal of civility and barbarism in Greece, and the contrary transformation of Germany, to illustrate changing fortunes. These sweeping histories are arguments about mutability, not independently established conditions of every place named.

Colonization enters this vocabulary directly. Britain, France and Germany are said to have emerged from barbarism through Roman colonies and laws; Virginia and Ireland supposedly might have been civilized earlier by the same means. Burton criticizes the delay and the honour of English government, rather than rejecting settlement or conquest. His wish to root out American barbarism later belongs to the magical universal reform he declares impossible before inventing his own Utopia. The political argument should therefore retain both its concern for public welfare and its coercive cultural hierarchy.

The judgments do not fall on a simple Europe/non-Europe boundary. The discussion of diet reports praise of the Tartars’ country as the civilest, most civilized, after their contempt for European bread. China can be called a civil commonwealth even within an account of lethal violence arising from poverty; civil does not certify every action as morally good. Conversely, English civil-war violence and murderous factions among European rulers are called barbarous. Here the word condemns cruelty, including cruelty within one’s own nation.

The account also exposes the relativity of national insults without escaping them. Nations accuse one another of barbarism; Greeks call everyone else barbarians. In the exile discussion Burton criticizes narrow attachment to home while repeating disparaging judgments of northern peoples. Bodin’s accusation that English civil wars prove English barbarity receives a counteraccusation about French violence, rather than a withdrawal of the category. In the argument about honour, superior character can put even a person labelled a barbarian above a titled inferior. Yet Burton returns to praise of noble education, preferring its recipients if capable, and acknowledges good people among rich and poor alike.

Sometimes the contrast is more precise. “Greeks and Barbarians” becomes “Greeks and non-Greeks” in the appeal to Dionysius against corrupt Christian patrons. The original Latin Barbari has the same local contrast. Its margin concerns ancestral worship; Burton’s English broadens it to all religious observance. His point is that the patrons under attack behave worse than the people they might regard as outsiders. Léry’s reported comparison likewise gives Barbarian homeliness, barbarian simplicity, an advantage over French fashionable display: homeliness is plainness, not ugliness, and equal beauty is expressly conceded. The accompanying cum Barbaris nudis, with naked barbarians, belongs to a comparison about contact and sexual provocation, not a claim that contact necessarily means sexual intercourse.

Civility as manners can fail among the educated or the well-born. Aeneas Sylvius’s learned scholars lack common civility and practical competence; Burton then offsets this ridicule with their innocence and sincerity. Wealthy parents, meanwhile, can raise uncivil, ill-mannered children and despise learning with barbaro fastu, uncultivated arrogance. Burton’s later complaint that much of the gentry treats libraries barbarously makes education, not rank alone, a disputed test of cultivation. Latin civilitas, appearing as civilitatis and civilitatem, names this social cultivation. The courteous scholar rewarded for merit in another passage belongs to a story Burton expressly calls imaginary.

Love supplies an attractive but unstable version of the same transformation. It makes clowns civil, boors courteous; the margin’s ex agrestibus civiles gives rustics made courteous. Burton immediately asks whether love does more good or harm. Cymon acquires manners and gentlemanly accomplishments for Iphigenia’s sake, but the supplied note records the abduction, imprisonment and killings compressed into Burton’s praise of his exploits. Later, love left unchecked and unrelieved makes people forget civility altogether. The praise of music includes barbariemque, and barbarity: barbariem names the condition, and the attached que means and. The margin claims that music makes peoples abandon barbarity, a clause Burton’s English body does not repeat.

The distinction between civic conduct and personal courtesy remains important. Civil affairs are nonmilitary public activities protected by force in the Ciceronian argument Burton cites after refusing to condemn all wars. Civil magistrates are secular public officers, and civil duties are civic obligations. Civil wars are armed conflicts within a political community. In civilibus, in civil matters, contrasts worldly with spiritual freedom in Osiander’s margin; Burton’s accompanying spiritual argument excepts those born again and led by the Spirit. Civil Law and Civilian have a specialized historical meaning: the learned Roman-based legal tradition and its practitioner, contrasted with England’s municipal law.

Smaller applications keep the ordinary senses visible. Uncivil carriage is rude behaviour in the discussion of distress caused by harsh speech. To go civilly and decently means to dress respectably and becomingly. Living civilly means peaceably in the reported argument against religious coercion, subject to its conditions of honesty and reverence. The reported claim about salvation in any religion is broader than the argument for civic toleration supported by the supplied Crell comparison; Burton’s ensuing debate and return to qualified coercion prevent this from becoming a simple statement of his own toleration policy. Guazzo’s Civil Conversation names cultivated social exchange in a dialogue cited to defend an older person’s fitness to discuss love.

Barbarism also concerns language. Burton concedes faults of barbarous expression in his own style, partly deliberate, then qualifies his self-accusation. Barbarous words in charms are foreign-sounding or unintelligible; he expressly denies their intrinsic power and attributes their deceptive use to the Devil. Barbarous medicinal names are linguistically uncouth in Cornarius’s reported criticism of compound remedies. These are different applications from the cruelty Burton refuses when he says he need not torture a suffering person to describe melancholy. His example of a painter doing so comes from a rhetorical exercise.

The preliminary Latin address makes the instability of these exclusions visible at the reader’s own door. Barbarus, uncultivated or barbarous, first labels a spectator who is to be driven away; the next passage reverses the command and welcomes everyone, while saying that fault-finding can help him improve and that praise should not carry him away. In the religious argument, too, the claim that no nation is so barbarous as to lack knowledge of a god is immediately qualified by reported exceptions. Burton separately contrasts religion’s humanizing power with superstition’s degradation of people: the Latin’s rough made gentle and beasts made human should not be conflated with the English’s wild beasts made civil and wise people made fools.

Related entries

Commonwealth: Political communities, their institutions and their imagined health.

Policy: Government and public welfare.

Utopia: The impossible reform and imagined commonwealth.

Law and justice: Civil law, its practitioners and competing kinds of law.

Manure: Cultivated land in the political ideal.

War and peace: Internal conflict, cruelty and the limits of the denunciation of war.

Honour and nobility: Cultivation, upbringing, merit and inherited rank.

Poverty and riches: Public deprivation and the judgments attached to poverty.

Custom and education: Education and the formation of conduct.

Study and reading: Libraries and the cultural claims of learning.

Religious melancholy: Religion, superstition and confessional polemic.

Places to read

1. Democritus Junior to His Book · paragraphs 39–43The Latin address’s exclusion of an uncultivated reader and immediate reversal into welcome.
2. Democritus Junior to the Reader · paragraphs 3–8Barbarism of style, partly deliberate faults and qualified self-criticism.
3. Democritus Junior to the Reader · paragraphs 17–20Democritus’s literary accusation concerning the laws of nature and civil life.
4. Democritus Junior to the Reader · paragraphs 26–30, 1–4Internal wars, English barbarous cruelty and the ensuing refusal to condemn all war; civic affairs under military protection.
5. Democritus Junior to the Reader · paragraphs 19–23Reciprocal national accusations of barbarism.
6. Democritus Junior to the Reader · paragraphs 1–5Civil people and barbarism within the healthy and sick political body.
7. Democritus Junior to the Reader · paragraphs 11–14Cultivation, supposed decline and the accusation against Turkish despotism.
8. Democritus Junior to the Reader · paragraphs 17–20Barbarous factional cruelty among rulers.
9. Democritus Junior to the Reader · paragraphs 1–10Civilization through colonies and laws; England’s civil accomplishments and the margin’s missing minus, followed by qualifications of the national praise.
10. Democritus Junior to the Reader · paragraphs 29–36American barbarism in the impossible wish for universal reform, before the new Utopia.
11. Subsection 11. The Will · paragraphs 36–40Civil and spiritual freedom in Osiander’s margin, with the exception for regeneration in the body.
12. Subsection 3 Witches and Magicians: How They Cause Melancholy · paragraphs 53–55; Subsection 4. The Stars as a Cause. Signs From Physiognomy, Metoposcopy and Chiromancy · paragraph 1Barbarous words in charms, with intrinsic power expressly denied.
13. Subsection 3 Habit in Diet, Pleasure, Appetite and Necessity How They Cause or Prevent Melancholy · paragraphs 44–48The reported civilest country in the comparison of Tartar and European diets.
14. Subsection 15 Love of Learning or Excessive Study With a Digression on the Misery of Scholars and Why the Muses Are Melancholy · paragraphs 39–42, 1Scholarly civility and practical competence, balanced by innocence and sincerity.
15. Subsection 15 Love of Learning or Excessive Study With a Digression on the Misery of Scholars and Why the Muses Are Melancholy · paragraphs 35–39The Civilian, Roman-based Civil Law and the rivalry with English municipal law.
16. Subsection 15 Love of Learning or Excessive Study With a Digression on the Misery of Scholars and Why the Muses Are Melancholy · paragraphs 19–34Greeks and non-Greeks in the attack on church patrons; ill-mannered children and uncultivated arrogance among the wealthy.
17. Subsection 6 Poverty and Want as Causes of Melancholy · paragraphs 35–38Civil China within the reported violence caused by poverty.
18. Subsection 7. A Collection of Other Events That Cause Melancholy: The Death of Friends, Losses, and So On · paragraphs 4–8Uncivil behaviour and harsh speech in the account of distress.
19. Section 3. Member 1. Subsection 1. Symptoms or Signs of Melancholy in the Body · paragraphs 1–4The painter’s rhetorical exemplum and Burton’s refusal of barbarous observation through torture.
20. Member 4 Exercise of Body and Mind Regulated · paragraphs 16–20Barbarously despising books and libraries; education rather than birth alone.
21. Subsection 3 Music as a Remedy · paragraphs 3–6Music’s attributed effects, including barbariem in the original margin but not the English body.
22. Member 2 Bodily Deformity, Sickness, Low Birth, and Particular Discontents · paragraphs 7–17A person called a barbarian may exceed a titled inferior in worth, followed by renewed class prejudice.
23. Member 2 Bodily Deformity, Sickness, Low Birth, and Particular Discontents · paragraphs 25–27Civil conduct acquired through noble upbringing, with if capable and good people among rich and poor.
24. Member 3 Against Poverty and Want and Other Such Adversities · paragraphs 1–4Civility and barbarism in the rise-and-fall consolation.
25. Member 4 Against Servitude, Loss of Liberty, Imprisonment and Banishment · paragraphs 40–44Greek outsiders, exile and Burton’s continuing northern prejudices; printed 327 is a misprint for 340.
26. Member 7 Against Rejection, Abuse, Injuries, Contempt, Disgrace, Insults, Slander, Mockery and the Like · paragraphs 19–25The courteous scholar in an explicitly imaginary story of rewarded merit.
27. Subsection 5 Compound Alteratives Criticism of Compounds and Mixed Medicines · paragraphs 3–8Barbarous medicinal names in Cornarius’s reported criticism.
28. Section 1. Member 1. Subsection 1 The Preface · paragraphs 34–38Guazzo’s Civil Conversation in the defence of discussing love.
29. Artificial Attractions of Love and Incitements to Lust Gestures Clothes Dowry and So On · paragraphs 23–27Léry’s attributed comparison of barbarian plainness with French adornment, including the original Latin margin.
30. Artificial Attractions of Love and Incitements to Lust Gestures Clothes Dowry and So On · paragraphs 43–46Civilly as respectably in the discussion of dress.
31. Member 4 Subsection 1 Symptoms or Signs of Love Melancholy in Body and Mind Good and Bad Signs and So Forth · paragraphs 48–52Love makes boors courteous, followed by uncertainty whether benefits outweigh harms.
32. Member 4 Subsection 1 Symptoms or Signs of Love Melancholy in Body and Mind Good and Bad Signs and So Forth · paragraphs 64–67, 1–2Courtesy, Cymon’s accomplishments and the violent continuation explained in the supplied note.
33. The Prognosis of Love Melancholy · paragraphs 38–42Loss of civility if love runs unchecked and is not eased or cured.
34. Causes of Religious Melancholy. From the Devil, Through Miracles, Apparitions and Oracles. His Instruments or Agents: Politicians, Priests, Impostors, Heretics and Blind Guides. In Them: Credulity, Fear, Blind Zeal, Ignorance, Solitude, Curiosity, Pride, Vanity, Presumption and So On. His Devices: Fasting, Solitude, Hope, Fear and the Rest · paragraphs 12–16No nation so barbarous as to lack religion, followed by the reported exceptions.
35. General Symptoms: Love of Their Own Sect; Hatred of All Other Religions; Obstinacy and Ill Temper; Readiness to Undergo Any Danger or Adversity for It; Martyrs; Blind Zeal and Blind Obedience; Fasts and Vows; Belief in Incredible and Impossible Things. Particular Symptoms Among Pagans, Muslims, Jews and Christians; and Among Christians, Heretics Old and New, Schismatics, Scholastic Theologians, Prophets, Enthusiasts and So On · paragraphs 38–42Religion and superstition’s opposed effects, with the different Latin and English formulations preserved.
36. General Symptoms: Love of Their Own Sect; Hatred of All Other Religions; Obstinacy and Ill Temper; Readiness to Undergo Any Danger or Adversity for It; Martyrs; Blind Zeal and Blind Obedience; Fasts and Vows; Belief in Incredible and Impossible Things. Particular Symptoms Among Pagans, Muslims, Jews and Christians; and Among Christians, Heretics Old and New, Schismatics, Scholastic Theologians, Prophets, Enthusiasts and So On · paragraphs 18–22Civil magistrates in Burton’s anti-Anabaptist polemic.
37. Subsection 4. Prognosis of Religious Melancholy · paragraphs 31–35Bodin’s accusation and Burton’s countercharge about civil wars.
38. Subsection 5 The Cure of Religious Melancholy · paragraphs 1–24Civilly as peaceably in the conditional toleration opinion, its debate and qualified coercive reply.
39. Member 2 Subsection 1 Religious Melancholy From Deficiency: Those Affected—Epicures, Atheists, Hypocrites, the Worldly and Complacent, Carnalists, All Impious People, Impenitent Sinners, and Others · paragraphs 55–59Civic duties performed for private advantage in Burton’s accusation.

In this edition

“uncivil” → “uncivilised” in the colonial comparison, but “uncivil carriage” → “Rude behaviour” in the domestic account. “clowns, civil” → “boors courteous” gives the social sense, whereas “civil duties” → “civic duty” gives the public one. “Barbarians” → “non-Greeks” is specific to the contrast with Greeks; it is not a universal replacement for the word. “barbarism” → “barbarous language” identifies a stylistic fault, and “Barbarian homeliness” → “barbarian simplicity” preserves plainness without implying ugliness.

Civility also becomes civil life in the praise of England. The original margin’s humanitatis cultu means cultivation of civil life: humanitas supplies the humane or civilized culture, cultus its cultivation. That Latin omits minus from the expected non minus comparison; the modern supplies “no less,” supported by Camden and Burton’s English, while retaining the printed original. The Latin forms civilitatis, civilitatem and civiles are retrieved through civilitas and civilis; barbaram, barbaro, Barbari and Barbaris through barbarus; barbariemque through barbaries, with que meaning and. Their local meanings remain distinct, as do original marginal claims and Burton’s sometimes looser English glosses.

barbarian

Printed “Barbarians” (English; lemma).

People outside the Greeks’ own cultural group; here, non-Greeks. In other applications the word labels those judged uncultivated.

Here: The non-Greek peoples whose religious observance Burton holds up against corrupt Christian patrons.

Context: Dionysius’s original margin concerns ancestral worship; Burton generalizes it to all religious rites and applies the comparison polemically.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: Greeks and Barbarians

Modern rendering: Greeks and non-Greeks

Word and construction: Barbarians supplies non-Greeks in this particular Greek/non-Greek contrast.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “Barbarians” (English; lemma).

Citation key: barbarian.

Here: People outside a group’s own preferred cultural boundary.

Context: Burton describes Greek exclusion of everyone else, then reproduces his own harsh judgments of northern peoples while arguing about exile.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: the Greeks held all Barbarians but themselves

Modern rendering: the Greeks considered everyone but themselves barbarians

Word and construction: The adjective-like complement names outsiders under a judgment; held supplies considered.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “Barbarian” (English; lemma).

Citation key: barbarian.

Here: A person classified as uncultivated or outside the speaker’s privileged social world.

Context: Burton argues that superior character can give the supposedly lowest outsider precedence over a titled inferior; his later defence of noble upbringing limits any egalitarian reading.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: though thou be a Barbarian

Modern rendering: though you are a barbarian

Word and construction: The concessive though is retained; the subsequent if clause makes personal worth the condition.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “Barbarian homeliness” (English; phrase).

Citation key: barbarian homeliness.

Here: Plainness attributed to people called barbarians: Barbarian supplies that cultural label, and homeliness means simplicity or lack of elaborate adornment.

Context: Léry’s reported comparison favours unadorned Indigenous Brazilians over French fashionable display as a stimulus to lust; equal beauty is expressly allowed.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: that Barbarian homeliness

Modern rendering: that barbarian simplicity

Word and construction: Both components are rendered; homeliness here does not mean ugliness.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “Barbarians” (English; lemma).

Citation key: barbarian.

Here: People accused of uncivilized or brutally violent conduct.

Context: Bodin’s reported insult to the English is answered by Burton with the same charge against French violence; this is reciprocal polemic.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: accounts Englishmen Barbarians

Modern rendering: calls the English barbarians

Word and construction: Accounts means judges or considers; the modern calls conveys the attributed accusation.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

barbaries

Printed “barbariemque” (Latin; lemma).

Barbarity or uncultivated conduct; barbariem is the accusative singular and the attached que means and.

Here: A condition that peoples are said to abandon through music.

Context: This claim is in the original Latin margin within attributed praise of music; Burton’s English body omits this particular clause.

Source: original marginal quotation

Source wording and original alignment: barbariemque facit deponere gentes

Modern rendering: makes peoples abandon barbarity

Word and construction: Barbariem supplies barbarity, gentes peoples and facit deponere makes abandon; the enclitic que links this claim to the preceding list, not separately expressed in the selected English segment.

Modern container: note

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

barbarism · local use 1

Printed “barbarism” (English; lemma).

A condition judged uncultivated or deficient in social order.

Here: The condition Roman laws and settlements supposedly overcame.

Context: Burton’s history supports colonial rule and compresses different histories; the claim is preserved as his.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: was brought from barbarism

Modern rendering: brought them out of barbarism

Word and construction: The modern supplies them for the preceding countries and makes Roman prudence the explicit agent; the original is passive.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “barbarism” (English; lemma).

Citation key: barbarism.

Here: The opposite of cultivated public and intellectual life in Burton’s historical comparison.

Context: The contrast is part of consolation through the changing fortunes of countries and individuals.

Source: original body

Source and modern wording: the nurse of barbarism

Word and construction: The metaphor personifies the degraded condition as something nurtured by Greece; it is Burton’s judgment, not a verified description of the whole country.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “Barbarism” (English; lemma).

Citation key: barbarism.

Here: An alleged lack of civilization.

Context: Eradicating it from America belongs to the fantasy of universal magical reform that is subsequently declared impossible.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: root out Barbarism out of America

Modern rendering: root barbarism out of America

Word and construction: Root out gives eradication; the supposed state is Burton’s colonial classification within a counterfactual wish.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “barbarism” (English; lemma).

Citation key: barbarism.

Here: A condition judged uncultivated or foreign to one’s own privileged group.

Context: Burton reports Greek condemnation of all outsiders and the world’s reciprocal contempt for Greeks, within mutual national stereotypes.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: Greeks have condemned all the world but themselves of barbarism

Modern rendering: Greeks have condemned everyone but themselves as barbarians

Word and construction: The original abstract noun barbarism becomes a plural personal predicate as barbarians in the full equal-scope construction; these are not an isolated noun-to-noun pair.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

barbarism · local use 2

Printed “barbarism” (English; lemma).

Uncultivated, faulty or unpolished expression.

Here: A charge against Burton’s own written style, alongside dialect, repetition and patchwork composition.

Context: He says the faults are partly affected or deliberate, then qualifies his self-condemnation instead of admitting every alleged fault without reserve.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: barbarism

Modern rendering: barbarous language

Word and construction: The abstract noun is expanded as barbarous language; it concerns expression rather than a population.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

barbarous · local use 1

Printed “barbarous” (English; lemma).

Uncultivated or lacking the social order valued by the speaker.

Here: A judgment on the state of a badly governed country.

Context: The historical classification belongs to Burton’s contrast between cultivated public life and waste; it is not a neutral hierarchy of peoples.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: incult, barbarous, uncivil

Modern rendering: uncultivated, barbarous, uncivilised

Word and construction: Barbarous is retained; incult and uncivil contribute separate adjoining judgments.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “barbarous” (English; lemma).

Citation key: barbarous.

Here: Uncultivated or socially degraded in Burton’s judgment.

Context: Burton attributes Egypt’s supposed decline to Turkish despotism; this is his sweeping polemical history.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: now barbarous and desart

Modern rendering: now barbarous, deserted

Word and construction: Barbarous is retained, while desart separately supplies deserted.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “barbarous” (English; lemma).

Citation key: barbarous.

Here: Uncultivated, according to the hierarchy assumed by the quoted argument.

Context: The claim that even such a nation acknowledges a god is followed by an express admission of a few exceptions in travel reports; the body does not name the he responsible for that admission.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: there is no nation so barbarous

Modern rendering: no nation is so barbarous

Word and construction: The phrase is retained within an asserted universal whose continuation immediately qualifies it.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

barbarous · local use 2

Printed “barbarous” (English; lemma).

Inhumanly cruel or brutal.

Here: Burton condemns English civil-war violence against people born in the same country.

Context: The adjective can condemn the conduct of Europeans and members of one’s own nation; it need not name an outside people.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: barbarous immanitie

Modern rendering: barbarous brutality

Word and construction: Barbarous supplies brutal or inhuman; immanitie separately supplies brutality.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “barbarous” (English; lemma).

Citation key: barbarous.

Here: Inhumanly cruel.

Context: Burton condemns rulers whose factional killings destroy their own commonwealth.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: barbarous inhumanities

Modern rendering: barbarous cruelties

Word and construction: Barbarous qualifies the cruel actions; the public body bleeding to death is the governing metaphor.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “barbarous” (English; lemma).

Citation key: barbarous.

Here: Cruel or inhuman in treatment of another person.

Context: Burton refuses to imitate a painter’s torture of a captive in order to observe suffering; the painter story is a rhetorical exemplum.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: so barbarous, inhumane, curious or cruell

Modern rendering: so barbarous, inhuman, painstaking or cruel

Word and construction: The retained barbarous means brutal; curious independently means painstaking. The wider I need not and purpose clause preserve refusal, not a proposal to torture.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

barbarous · local use 3

Printed “barbarous” (English; lemma).

Foreign-sounding, unintelligible or linguistically uncouth.

Here: The supposed incantatory words in the discussion of charms.

Context: Burton expressly denies intrinsic power in these words and attributes their deceptive use to the Devil within his historical theological account.

Source: original body

Source and modern wording: barbarous words

Word and construction: The wording is retained; the surrounding no power at all makes their alleged use distinct from inherent efficacy.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “barbarous” (English; lemma).

Citation key: barbarous.

Here: Uncouth or corrupt in language.

Context: Cornarius’s reported criticism of names for medicinal compounds is part of a historical professional dispute.

Source: original body

Source and modern wording: barbarous names

Word and construction: The adjective describes terminology; it does not independently establish the compounds’ pharmacological effects.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

barbarously

Printed “barbarously” (English; lemma).

In an uncultivated or ignorant manner.

Here: The way Burton accuses much of the less educated gentry of treating books and libraries.

Context: The complaint is qualified by for the most part; it attacks lack of education rather than making rank itself proof of culture.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: how barbarously and basely for the most part our ruder gentry esteem of Libraries and books

Modern rendering: how barbarously and meanly most of our less cultivated gentry regard libraries and books

Word and construction: Barbarously is retained; basely supplies meanly, ruder less cultivated and for the most part limits the charge.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

barbarus

Printed “Barbarus” (Latin; lemma).

Barbarous or uncultivated; as a noun, a barbarian or non-Greek according to context.

Here: An uncultivated reader in the Latin address to the book.

Context: The poem first orders such readers driven away, then immediately reverses course and welcomes all, saying that fault-finding can help him pursue better things.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: Barbarus, indoctusque rudis spectator

Modern rendering: a barbarous, ignorant, uncultivated spectator

Word and construction: Barbarus supplies barbarous; indoctus ignorant and rudis uncultivated are separate adjectives.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “Barbari” (Latin; lemma).

Citation key: barbarus.

Here: Non-Greeks, as a plural noun in contrast with Greeks.

Context: Dionysius’s original marginal argument concerns persistence of ancestral worship; Burton’s English body broadens it.

Source: original marginal quotation

Source wording and original alignment: tam Græci quam Barbari

Modern rendering: both Greeks and non-Greeks

Word and construction: Barbari supplies non-Greeks, with tam...quam supplying both...and.

Modern container: note

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “barbaro” (Latin; lemma).

Citation key: barbarus.

Here: Uncultivated; an adjective agreeing with fastu.

Context: The margin condemns wealthy people’s disdain for learning, rather than treating noble birth as a guarantee of cultivation.

Source: original marginal quotation

Source wording and original alignment: barbaro fastu

Modern rendering: with uncultivated arrogance

Word and construction: Barbaro supplies uncultivated, fastu arrogance; with renders the ablative construction.

Modern container: note

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “barbaram” (Latin; lemma).

Citation key: barbarus.

Here: Barbarous or inhumanly brutal; an adjective agreeing with insaniam.

Context: The margin attributed to Commines condemns civil violence between people born under the same sky.

Source: original marginal quotation

Source wording and original alignment: crudelitatem & barbaram insaniam

Modern rendering: the cruelty and barbarous madness

Word and construction: Barbaram supplies barbarous; insaniam independently supplies madness, not the body’s immanity.

Modern container: note

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “Barbaris” (Latin; lemma).

Citation key: barbarus.

Here: People designated uncultivated or outside the speaker’s own cultural group; Barbaris is the ablative plural after cum.

Context: Léry’s reported contact with Indigenous Brazilians is compared with French sexual provocation; the statement denies that nudity necessarily has the alleged effect.

Source: original marginal quotation

Source wording and original alignment: cum Barbaris nudis

Modern rendering: with naked barbarians

Word and construction: Barbaris supplies barbarians, nudis naked and cum with. The wider commercium means contact or association, not necessarily sexual intercourse.

Modern container: note

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

civil · local use 1

Printed “civil” (English; lemma).

Cultivated and ordered in collective life.

Here: A quality of people in Burton’s picture of a healthy political community, associated with prosperity, law, education and concord.

Context: Burton gives a normative historical ideal, not an objective classification of peoples or a claim about present China or Europe.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: the people civil

Modern rendering: people civil

Word and construction: The adjective remains civil; the surrounding public institutions establish its broad social sense.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “civil” (English; lemma).

Citation key: civil.

Here: Cultivated or civilized in Burton’s historical judgment.

Context: Burton contrasts a prosperous past with decline he attributes to Turkish despotism; the sweeping historical charge remains his.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: more civil and rich populous countreys

Modern rendering: more civilised, wealthy, and populous countries

Word and construction: Civil supplies civilised, while more applies to the comparison.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “civilest” (English; lemma).

Citation key: civil.

Here: Most civilized or cultivated; the superlative of civil.

Context: A reported assessment of the Tartars and their country follows their mockery of European bread; this praise does not restrict civility to Europe.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: the civilest Countrey of them

Modern rendering: their most civilised country

Word and construction: The superlative civilest is expanded as most civilised.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “civil” (English; lemma).

Citation key: civil.

Here: Civilized or institutionally ordered, in Burton’s judgment.

Context: The epithet describes China even in a report of lethal violence arising from poverty; it is not unconditional moral approval of every practice.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: that civil commonwealth of China

Modern rendering: that civilised commonwealth of China

Word and construction: Civil supplies civilized; the following reported conduct does not change the adjective to courteous.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “civil” (English; lemma).

Citation key: civil.

Here: Cultivated or made capable of humane social conduct.

Context: Burton contrasts religion with superstition. His English wild beasts made civil differs from the Latin rough made gentle and humans made from beasts.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: Religion makes wild beasts civil

Modern rendering: Religion civilizes wild beasts

Word and construction: The construction makes...civil is rendered by the verb civilizes; the English object wild beasts is explicit, not supplied from the separate Latin.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

civil · local use 2

Printed “civil” (English; lemma).

Courteous or well-mannered.

Here: A quality love is said to give to previously uncouth people.

Context: Burton, citing Cardano from Plutarch, sets this alleged benefit against the numerous harmful effects of love and immediately questions which outweighs the other.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: clowns, civil

Modern rendering: boors courteous

Word and construction: Civil supplies courteous; clowns supplies boors. The shared makes in the wider list supplies the transformation.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “civil” (English; lemma).

Citation key: civil.

Here: Possessing good manners or cultivated social behaviour.

Context: Cymon acquires accomplishments for Iphigenia’s sake in Burton’s abbreviated literary example; the supplied note records the violence omitted from his summary.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: began to be civil

Modern rendering: began to acquire good manners

Word and construction: Be civil is expanded as acquire good manners within began to; it does not mean holding a civic office.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “civil” (English; lemma).

Citation key: civil.

Here: Courteous or socially well-behaved.

Context: The honest scholar appears in a deliberately imaginary story about rewarded merit, which Burton says never happened and probably never will.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: a right honest, civil, sober man

Modern rendering: a thoroughly honest, courteous, sober man

Word and construction: Civil supplies courteous; honest and sober remain separate qualities.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

civil · local use 3

Printed “civil” (English; lemma).

Belonging to civic or nonmilitary affairs; elsewhere to secular public office.

Here: The public activities protected by military force in Cicero’s argument as Burton quotes it.

Context: Burton condemns destructive wars but has expressly refused to condemn all war; civic does not mean all military force is excluded.

Source: original body

Source and modern wording: All our civil affairs

Word and construction: The adjective is retained in contrast to military protection; urbanæ res in the separate margin is not falsely indexed as civilis.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “civil” (English; lemma).

Citation key: civil.

Here: Secular or civic, referring to public government.

Context: Burton alleges that some Anabaptists question magistrates and their authority; the generalization is part of his religious polemic.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: civil Magistrates

Modern rendering: civil magistrates

Word and construction: Civil qualifies magistrates as public, secular officers; the wider question supplies the adverse action.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “civil” (English; lemma).

Citation key: civil.

Here: Civic, belonging to public and social obligations.

Context: Burton accuses some princes and private people of obeying only when it advances their own ends.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: all civil duties

Modern rendering: every civic duty

Word and construction: Civil supplies civic; all and the plural duties are recast as every duty.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

civil conversation

Printed “civil conversation” (English; phrase).

Cultivated social intercourse or discussion: civil means socially polished, and conversation social exchange or conduct.

Here: The title of Guazzo’s dialogue, cited to defend an experienced older person’s discussion of love.

Context: The title belongs to the original margin; the wider supplied note identifies the author and speaking company.

Source: original marginal quotation

Source wording and original alignment: civil conversation

Modern rendering: Civil Conversation

Word and construction: Title-to-title rendering retains both words; conversation is wider than modern casual talk.

Modern container: note

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

civil law

Printed “Civil Law” (English; phrase).

The learned Roman-based legal tradition: civil identifies that legal system, and law its rules and discipline.

Here: A profession Burton says has been restricted by England’s own municipal or common law.

Context: This is a historical jurisdictional and scholarly rivalry, not a description of current courts or legal advice.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: the Civil Law

Modern rendering: the civil law

Word and construction: The indexed legal name corresponds exactly; with us is rendered by Here earlier in the modern sentence and is not included in this narrower pair.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

civil war

Printed “civill wars” (English; phrase).

War within a political community: civil means internal to its members, and war means armed conflict.

Here: France’s internal wars are Burton’s example of destructive collective violence.

Context: The attributed casualties and ruined cities belong to his rhetorical historical report, not verified modern statistics.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: the late civill wars in France

Modern rendering: the recent civil wars in France

Word and construction: Late means recent; civill wars denotes internal armed conflict, not courteous or peaceful conduct.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “civil wars” (English; phrase).

Citation key: civil war.

Here: Armed conflict within a political community.

Context: Bodin’s charge that English civil wars make the English barbarians is answered with a countercharge about French violence.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: for their civil wars

Modern rendering: because of their civil wars

Word and construction: For supplies because of; civil specifies the internal character of the wars.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

civilian

Printed “Civilian” (English; lemma).

A practitioner or scholar of Roman-based civil law.

Here: A qualified lawyer whose professional opportunities Burton describes as narrow.

Context: The noun here does not distinguish a noncombatant from a soldier.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: an excellent Civilian of good worth

Modern rendering: an excellent and accomplished civil lawyer

Word and construction: Civilian supplies civil lawyer; of good worth contributes accomplished in the modern arrangement.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

civilis

Printed “civiles” (Latin; lemma).

Courteous or cultivated; civiles is an inflected plural of civilis.

Here: The resulting quality in Cardano’s transformation of rustics by love.

Context: The Latin margin’s claim is attributed and is balanced by Burton’s doubts about love’s overall benefit.

Source: original marginal quotation

Source wording and original alignment: ex agrestibus civiles

Modern rendering: rustics courteous

Word and construction: Ex agrestibus means from rustics; civiles supplies courteous. The shared makes in the wider sentence governs the transformation.

Modern container: note

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “civilibus” (Latin; lemma).

Citation key: civilis.

Here: Civil or worldly, as distinct from spiritual; civilibus is an inflected form of civilis.

Context: Osiander’s marginal distinction qualifies the scope of free will. Burton’s body also excepts those regenerate and led by the Spirit from its adverse spiritual claim.

Source: original marginal quotation

Source wording and original alignment: In civilibus libera, sed non in spiritualibus

Modern rendering: Free in civil matters, but not in spiritual ones

Word and construction: Civilibus supplies civil, with matters making explicit the substantival adjective; libera supplies free and the negation applies to spiritual matters.

Modern container: note

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

civilitas

Printed “civilitatis” (Latin; lemma).

Civility, social cultivation or competent manners; civilitatis is the genitive singular.

Here: The quality said to be absent in learned but impractical scholars.

Context: The original margin has the awkward sed si nihil; the supplied translation follows its evident adverse contrast without silently repairing the Latin.

Source: original marginal quotation

Source wording and original alignment: nihil civilitatis habent

Modern rendering: have no civility

Word and construction: Nihil supplies no and civilitatis the quality; the uncertain preceding sed si is outside this aligned unit.

Modern container: note

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “civilitatem” (Latin; lemma).

Citation key: civilitas.

Here: Civilized or cultivated conduct; civilitatem is the accusative singular.

Context: Seyssel’s reported argument stresses upbringing; Burton’s body makes preference conditional on capacity.

Source: original marginal quotation

Source wording and original alignment: ad morum civilitatem educati sunt, & assuefacti

Modern rendering: been educated and accustomed to civilized conduct

Alignment scope: equal-scope construction, with reordered English

Word and construction: Morum is of manners or conduct and civilitatem cultivation or civility. The original & assuefacti supplies and accustomed; the modern rearranges the entire construction.

Modern container: note

civility · local use 1

Printed “civility” (English; lemma).

Civil life and its cultivated practices, distinct here from military achievement.

Here: The nonmilitary accomplishments of England in Camden’s praise.

Context: The historical praise belongs to the account of Norman and later England; the surrounding celebration is qualified by the subsequent account of thorns and public faults.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: both for military matters, and all other of civility

Modern rendering: in military matters and every other aspect of civil life

Word and construction: Civility supplies civil life; the entire construction supplies the military/nonmilitary comparison.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “civility” (English; lemma).

Citation key: civility.

Here: Civil or social life governed by shared norms.

Context: Democritus, in the literary account, accuses his questioners of violating natural and social laws.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: all laws, both of nature and civility

Modern rendering: every law of nature and civil life

Word and construction: Civility supplies civil life; laws of is shared by the two nouns.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “civility” (English; lemma).

Citation key: civility.

Here: Civilized life, including cultivated learning and public order.

Context: The rise-and-fall consolation depicts Greece as declining from cultivated learning into barbarism, a sweeping historical judgment.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: the seat of civility

Modern rendering: the home of civilized life

Word and construction: Seat means home or established centre; civility supplies civilized life.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

civility · local use 2

Printed “civility” (English; lemma).

Manners, social competence or courteous conduct.

Here: The ordinary social competence that some highly learned scholars are said to lack.

Context: Aeneas Sylvius supplies the complaint; Burton subsequently defends scholars’ innocence and sincerity despite such failings.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: they had no common civility

Modern rendering: they lacked ordinary civility

Alignment scope: equal-scope construction

Word and construction: Common means ordinary; had no is recast as lacked, preserving the negation.

Further local use

Printed “civility” (English; lemma).

Citation key: civility.

Here: Courtesy or cultivated social behaviour.

Context: One benefit attributed to love, followed by the Cymon story whose troubling continuation is explained in the supplied note.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: All manner of civility

Modern rendering: every kind of courtesy

Word and construction: Civility supplies courtesy; all manner of supplies every kind of.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “civility” (English; lemma).

Citation key: civility.

Here: Civil conduct, the manners expected of a cultivated person.

Context: Burton gives noble education as a reason for preference only if its recipients are capable; he subsequently acknowledges good people among rich and poor.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: all manner of civility

Modern rendering: every form of civil conduct

Word and construction: Civility supplies civil conduct, with all manner of separately supplying every form of.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “civility” (English; lemma).

Citation key: civility.

Here: Proper social conduct or manners.

Context: Burton says unchecked and unrelieved love can make people forget such conduct; the conditional course is not erased.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: forget all honesty, shame and common civility

Modern rendering: forget all decency, shame and ordinary civility

Word and construction: The noun is retained; the surrounding if and be not otherwise eased or amended qualify the predicted loss.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

civilize

Printed “civilized” (English; lemma).

Bring into a condition judged cultivated and socially ordered.

Here: Colonial settlement and rule presented by Burton as social improvement.

Context: Burton says Virginia and Ireland might have been transformed earlier if colonies had been established; his objection to Davies concerns delay, not opposition to colonization.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: might Virginia, and those wild Irish have been civilized long since

Modern rendering: Virginia and those wild Irish might have been civilised long ago

Word and construction: The conditional might have been is preserved; the derogatory designation is Burton’s.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

civilly

Printed “civilly” (English; lemma).

Respectably, with fitting social propriety; in another setting, peaceably in public life.

Here: The manner of dress recommended for matrons in Burton’s discussion of adornment.

Context: The adverb qualifies going or dressing; it does not itself supply the action of putting on clothes.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: to go civilly and decently

Modern rendering: dressing respectably and becomingly

Word and construction: Civilly supplies respectably, decently becomingly and go the contextual dressing.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “civilly” (English; lemma).

Citation key: civilly.

Here: Peaceably, in accordance with civic conduct.

Context: Burton reports a conditional opinion opposing coercion and linking salvation with honest, sober, peaceable conduct; the ensuing debate distinguishes outsiders and dissenters and turns back to qualified coercion.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: live soberly and civilly in his profession

Modern rendering: lives soberly and peaceably in his professed faith

Word and construction: Civilly supplies peaceably; profession is professed faith. The surrounding if or provided condition is retained in the account.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

humanitatis cultus

Printed “humanitatis cultu” (Latin; phrase).

Cultivation of civil life: humanitas here means humane or civilized culture, and cultus cultivation.

Here: Camden’s praise of England’s cultivated nonmilitary accomplishments.

Context: Burton’s printed margin omits minus from non minus; the modern supplies no less from the comparison supported by Camden and Burton’s English body.

Source: original marginal quotation

Source wording and original alignment: humanitatis cultu

Modern rendering: the cultivation of civil life

Word and construction: Humanitatis supplies of civil life and cultu cultivation in the ablative; the wider through renders the manner or means.

Modern container: note

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

uncivil

Printed “uncivil” (English; lemma).

Uncultivated or uncivilized; elsewhere lacking manners.

Here: The adverse classification from which Burton says Roman laws and colonies transformed peoples.

Context: The comparison with Virginia belongs to his justification of colonial rule; it is not an endorsed description of Indigenous people.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: as uncivil as they in Virginia

Modern rendering: as uncivilised as the people of Virginia

Word and construction: They is expanded as the people; the two as clauses retain the comparison.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “uncivil” (English; lemma).

Citation key: uncivil.

Here: Ill-mannered, lacking the conduct expected of educated people.

Context: Burton accuses illiterate wealthy parents of transmitting their own uncultivated behaviour, keeping most part rather than making it universal.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: uncivil most part

Modern rendering: for the most part, ill-mannered

Word and construction: Uncivil supplies ill-mannered; most part separately limits the generalization.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.

Further local use

Printed “uncivil” (English; lemma).

Citation key: uncivil.

Here: Rude or discourteous.

Context: Burton describes harsh marital speech as a cause of distress within his gendered account of susceptibility, not as a modern clinical finding.

Source: original body

Source wording and original alignment: uncivil carriage

Modern rendering: Rude behaviour

Word and construction: Uncivil supplies rude; carriage means behaviour.

Alignment conventions: Alignment convention.